References with a purpose

Energy and cell signals

MOTS-c and metabolic regulation in mice: The first MOTS-c study in cells and mice. Treated mice on a high-fat diet gained less weight and handled sugar better.
FDA review of MOTS-c: FDA found no published human treatment studies and gaps in basic safety testing. A promising mechanism leaves those questions open.
Registered MOTS-c study in adults with prediabetes: A plan to test MOTS-c in adults with prediabetes, a blood-sugar condition, and extra weight. The record supplies no results.
NAD+ in human health and disease: NAD+, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, helps cells handle energy. This biological role doesn’t establish that giving more makes someone less tired.
NMN and muscle insulin sensitivity: NMN is a building block for NAD+. Muscle responded better to insulin, but body composition and longer-term blood sugar stayed unchanged.
Human studies of NAD+ precursors: Studies of NAD+ precursors, the materials used to make it. Biological measurements changed more consistently than functional outcomes; follow-up was limited.

FDA review of thymosin alpha-1: FDA’s 2024 review found too little evidence for the uses it checked. It also covers injection-site reactions and quality concerns.
KPV uptake and intestinal inflammation: KPV research in gut-lining cells grown in a dish, alongside mouse bowel-inflammation experiments. This isn’t a treatment trial in people.
FDA review of KPV: FDA found no human evidence to judge benefit or side effects. KPV’s exact targets also remained uncertain.

Semax and resting brain activity: A small Semax brain-scan study in healthy volunteers. Better everyday memory and focus were not established.
FDA review of Semax: FDA describes limited clinical evidence, incomplete safety reporting and a bleeding concern from rats, rather than a measured human effect.
A controlled DSIP study in chronic insomnia: An older insomnia trial. The authors called the sleep effects modest and questioned the practical benefit of short-term treatment.
The unresolved biology of DSIP: Delta sleep-inducing peptide, or DSIP, still had a weakly established sleep link and unresolved biology.

FDA safety concerns and withdrawn nominations: FDA’s page current as of April 22, 2026 lists the five peptides discussed here as nominated but withdrawn. That isn’t clearance or compounding approval; individual withdrawal dates aren’t given.
FDA questions and answers about compounding: Compounded drugs are not FDA-approved. Before these drugs reach the market, FDA has not reviewed whether they work, are safe or meet quality standards. A prescription doesn’t change that.
HHS guidance on telehealth licensure: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services guidance: clinicians need to meet licensing rules where they are and be legally allowed to practise where you are.